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The underlying vocabulary knowledge, which serves as the first step towards second and foreign language (L2) acquisition, is dominant in learners’ four language skills (Nation, 2001) and communicative competence (Schmitt, 2000). Vocabulary acquisition goes far beyond consulting a dictionary, memorizing word definitions and drills. Instead, a large proportion of vocabulary is acquired incidentally from or through real-world contexts in which the words are actually used. As Stahl (2005) indicated, “the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that words fits into the world” (p. 95). Word meanings are context-sensitive and dynamic; in other words, word meanings are determined or defined dynamically within or by a context. Hence, vocabulary is best acquired or learned in context. However, in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) settings, the lack of a rich oral target language environment, a dearth of authentic language input and contextualized vocabulary learning in real-world situations, and repetitive, isolated vocabulary drills or study can result in learners’ partial or inadequate mastering of vocabulary knowledge, and can eventually lead to less effective vocabulary learning. This dilemma, commonly faced by EFL learners, highlights the importance of vocabulary acquisition in target language-rich and authentic real-world contexts.
The lack of motivation is another obstacle for EFL learners to overcome, and one that impedes successful vocabulary acquisition through written and oral contexts. Vocabulary acquisition is an incremental learning process highly associated with motivational conditions. Motivation is one of the key factors influencing the success of L2 vocabulary learning (Deng, 2010; You, 2011). Deng (2010) emphasized the specific effect of motivation, namely self-efficacy and attitude, in vocabulary learning. Tseng and Schmitt (2008) proposed a model of “motivated vocabulary learning,” whereby learners’ “ever-changing motivational state” (p. 360) is posited to be closely related to their vocabulary learning process.
In response to the aforementioned dilemma, we built Virtual English Classroom Augmented Reality (VECAR) to help EFL learners overcome the obstacles facing them through contextualized and motivated vocabulary learning. VECAR is a blend between virtual reality and augmented reality, which involves projections of real-world images into virtual spaces. After launching VECAR, users can arrive at various preset destinations and explore by controlling their avatars and navigating through the panoramic street-level imagery. VECAR served as a means to situate explicit vocabulary instruction and to motivate incidental vocabulary learning in context, via both language learners' reading of text and their immersion in “real-world” situations that provided “context-embedded” understanding and facilitated vocabulary learning. VECAR lets learners “spot” vocabulary words embedded in real-world contexts through having the learners tour various locations of New York, such as Yankee Stadium, the Statue of Liberty, and Times Square (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Students participated as avatars standing in Times Square
This research asserted that a hybrid combination of virtual and real-world environments, VECAR, motivated and scaffolded EFL learners’ contextual vocabulary acquisition and strategy use through their meaningful interactions with a native speaker (NS) as well as with the authentic materials (i.e., street-view images). This research seeks to investigate the influence of VECAR on the learners’ vocabulary learning process, including motivation (i.e., self-efficacy and attitude toward English vocabulary learning) and strategy use, through learners' immersion in a hybrid context under the guidance of a NS as they visit popular sites in New York City. Inspired by Tseng and Schmitt’s (2008) model of “motivated vocabulary learning” and Godwin-Jones’ (2018) term, “contextualized vocabulary learning,” this study explored the dynamics among vocabulary knowledge, motivation, and strategy use, which were assumed to be inextricably intertwined factors in the contextual vocabulary learning process. The research questions are as follows: