Abstract
Exploring the history of systemic racism rooted in longstanding policies, practices, and unfair treatment of African Americans can explain present-day disproportionality. Desegregating schools following the 1954 Brown v. Board decision was long, arduous, and contentious. Despite desegregation efforts, the return to neighborhood schools, residential segregation, court rulings, and district student assignment and choice plans, school segregation has increased. Rumberger and Palardy argue that students in segregated schools are primarily poor, and that socioeconomic status significantly affects student achievement. Furthermore, children who are experiencing poverty are at greater risk of encountering trauma and barriers to maximizing educational opportunities for success. In this chapter, the authors explore these traumatic experiences, which are prevalent in segregated areas of concentrated poverty. The authors highlight the need for authentic integration for access and trauma-informed practices to mitigate the effects of acute and chronic stress and foster resilience.
TopIntroduction
The conditions for Black people in America date back to 1619 when the first Africans were brought to the shores of the United States and were enslaved. In 1896, Plessy v. Ferguson ruled that separate but equal was constitutional, legalizing the separation of African Americans, but was overturned in 1954 when the Supreme ruled in Brown v. Topeka Board of Education that separate but equal was, in fact, unconstitutional. It has been nearly 70 years since the landmark decision of Brown versus Topeka Board of Education promised equal educational opportunity, particularly for African American students. Despite the promise of Brown to equalize educational opportunities for African American students, studies and various datasets show disproportionate outcomes for both Hispanic and African American students, which suggests that the promise of Brown v. Board has not been fully realized. The disparate outcomes for African Americans iterate the idea of Du Bois and Myrdal in the early 1900s, and more recently, scholars such as Ta-nehisi Coates and Kimberly Alexander, to name a few, argue that “race continues to be a source of controversy and conflict for American society and the condition of racial minorities” (Noguera et al., 2014, p. 1).
W. E. B. Du Bois (1935) argued the need for separate schools only if these institutions “provided a proper education for the Negro race” and mixed or integrated schools did not (p. 328). According to Du Bois (1935), some characteristics of a “proper education” relies on teachers having historical knowledge of the group of students being taught, “sympathetic touch between teacher and student,” relationships between students and adults to students based on “perfect social equality,” and educational facilities (p. 328). Although Du Bois’s ideology stemmed from the continued racial divide in America, he proposed that separate schools may one day be obsolete even if the education of African American students received was deplorable. In fact, Du Bois (1935) stated, “The plain fact faces us, that either he will have separate schools, or he will not be educated” (p. 329).
Despite Du Bois’s preference for separate schools unless African Americans were going to receive a superior education in a mixed or integrated school, within 20 years, the move towards integration of schools began with the passing of key legislation. The decision of the courts for all school districts to desegregate with “all deliberate speed” had great implications for American schools; however, the path to achieving equality and equity was just the beginning of a long and arduous process nationally. Thus, the objectives of this chapter are to establish school integration as a social justice issue by:
- 1.
Exploring the impact of segregated schools on African American children.
- 2.
Highlighting the need for trauma-informed practices for African American children who live in and attend schools in impoverished communities.
- 3.
Presenting efforts to promote more racially and socioeconomically integrated schools.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Resilience: A socio-ecological perspective shows that in situations of adversity, resilience is observed when individuals engage in behaviors that help them to navigate their way to the resources they need to flourish.
Adversity: Adversity is a state or instance of serious or continued difficulty or misfortune showing courage in the face of adversity. Adverse childhood experiences, or ACEs, are potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood (0-17 years). For example: experiencing violence, abuse, or neglect; witnessing violence in the home or community; having a family member attempt or die by suicide.
Achievement Gaps: The term achievement gap refers to any significant and persistent disparity in academic performance or educational attainment between different groups of students, such as white students and minorities, for example, or students from higher-income and lower-income households.
Equity: Equity is a fair distribution of access and opportunity.
Trauma: Trauma is an emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, rape, or natural disaster. Reactions such as shock and denial are typical. Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, strained relationships, and even physical symptoms.
Disproportionality: Disproportionality refers to a group’s representation in a particular category that exceeds expectations for that group or differs substantially from the representation of others in that category.
Poverty: Poverty is a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources and essentials for a minimum standard of living. Poverty thresholds are determined by the US government and vary according to the size of a family, and the ages of its members.
Segregation: The term “segregation” means the operation of a school system in which students are wholly or substantially separated among the schools of an educational agency on the basis of race, color, sex, or national origin or within a school on the basis of race, color, or national origin.
Integration: School integration refers to the reduction or elimination of racial segregation in public schools.