Abstract
This chapter focuses on ageism, which is one of today's noteworthy issues that should be addressed carefully. Ageism is a multidimensional concept whose roots we can find in different fields and whose consequences we can experience in many areas of life. It can affect the decisions we make, the policies we create, attitudes and behaviors, and health. Therefore, efforts to understand ageism and proposing solutions to reduce it are of great importance. In this chapter, the factors underlying ageism are discussed in the light of different theories and the problems that ageism may create in the workplace are touched upon. Ways to combat ageism are examined and suggestions are given.
TopIntroduction
“… the sixth age shifts
Into the lean and slippered pantaloon,
With spectacles on nose and pouch on side,
His youthful hose well saved - a world too wide
For his shrunk shank - and his big manly voice,
Turning again toward childish treble, pipes
And whistles in his sound; last scene of all
That ends this strange eventful history
Is second childishness and mere oblivion,
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.”
(William Shakespeare, As You Like It, Act 2, Scene 7)
Beliefs and prejudices based on age and age stereotypes that have been exposed since childhood can manifest themselves in individuals' decisions, attitudes, and behaviors. A person's age may overshadow his or her education, skills, and achievements; the person may be judged solely by his or her age and be subjected to age-based discrimination.
Ageism is a concept that is generally addressed with discrimination, stereotypes, and prejudice. Its causes are explained from different perspectives, and it prevents us from making rational decisions and creating rational policies by focusing on beliefs based on age and age stereotypes.
Ageism can affect health both physiologically and psychologically. It can have an impact on hiring, promotion, and dismissal decisions in working life. It can trigger negative attitudes and behaviors among younger and older age groups. It can have an effect on public policies. Therefore, it has become very important to seek answers to the questions of why ageism occurs, what kind of problems it may cause and how to combat it.
In this chapter, the definitions of ageism are examined and the reasons for the occurrence of ageism are discussed in the light of micro-, meso-, and macro-level theories. The possible consequences of ageism in the workplace are mentioned. Ways to reduce ageism are examined and suggestions are given to combat it.
TopWhat Is Ageism And Why Does It Occur?
Ageism was defined as a “prejudice by one age group toward other age groups” when it was first coined by Butler (1969, p. 243). Butler (1969) considered it as a form of bigotry. According to Butler (1980), prejudicial attitudes toward older people, old age, and aging; discriminatory practices; institutional policies and applications are three aspects that lead to ageism becoming a social problem. He redefined ageism as a “process of systematic stereotyping and discrimination against people because they are old, just as racism and sexism accomplish this for skin color and gender” (Butler, 2001, p. 38).
Palmore (1999) described ageism as a “prejudice or discrimination against or in favor of an age group” (p. 4). As stated by Palmore (1999), negative prejudice, positive prejudice, negative discrimination, and positive discrimination are basic types of ageism. Decreased learning and remembering abilities, loss of beauty, loneliness, uselessness, poor health, and poverty are some of the stereotypes that represent negative prejudice. On the other hand, stereotypes such as freedom, affluence, wisdom, kindness, and trustworthiness reflect positive prejudice about older people. Negative discrimination and positive discrimination against older people may reveal in health care, family, housing, policies and programs, and economic area such as employment.
Minichiello et al. (2000) explained ageism as a “set of social relations that discriminate against older people and set them apart as being different by defining and understanding them in an oversimplified, generalised way” (p. 253). Levy and Banaji (2002) defined ageism as “an alteration in feeling, belief, or behavior in response to an individual’s or group’s perceived chronological age” (p. 50). Iversen et al. (2009) introduced a complex definition of ageism. According to their definition, ageism is “negative or positive stereotypes, prejudice and/or discrimination against (or to the advantage of) elderly people on the basis of their chronological age or on the basis of a perception of them as being ‘old’ or ‘elderly’. Ageism can be implicit or explicit and can be expressed on a micro-, meso- or macro-level” (Iversen et al., 2009, p. 15).
Key Terms in this Chapter
Prejudice: It is a hostile attitude toward a person due to the belief that just because he or she belongs to a group, he or she has negative qualities identified with that group ( Allport, 1954 ).
Terror Management Theory: According to the theory, older people are reminders of the inescapability of death. Cultural worldview and self-esteem are considered important elements in coping with the threat of death (see Greenberg et al., 1986 ; Greenberg et al., 1997 ; Martens et al., 2005 ).
Intergenerational Conflict: Disagreement between older and younger generations about how to distribute resources among age groups is called intergenerational conflict ( Silverstein, 2007 ).
Intersectionality: Intersectionality theory emphasizes that people are part of different groups, such as age and gender. Therefore, they may simultaneously experience the advantages and disadvantages associated with these different groups. Being a member of more than one group can bring with it different stereotypes for everyone (see Cole, 2009 ; Marcus & Fritzsche, 2015 ; Richardson & Loubier, 2008 ).
Stereotype: Stereotype means exaggerated, generalized and difficult to change beliefs about a particular category (see Allport, 1954 ; Henkens, 2005 ; Stangor, 2016 ).
Intergroup Threat: According to intergroup threat theory, intergroup threat occurs when members of an in-group perceive that they or their beliefs and values may be harmed by out-groups. Concerns about threats from an out-group can trigger negative emotions, prejudices, and negative behaviors ( Stephan et al., 2016 ).
Ageism: Ageism is a complex concept. Its roots we can find in several fields and its consequences we can experience in many areas of life. There are various studies in the literature that define ageism in different ways (see, for example, Butler, 1969 , 2001 ; Iversen et al., 2009 ; Levy & Banaji, 2002 ; Minichiello et al., 2000 ; Palmore, 1999 ). In general, ageism refers to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination for or against members of an age group.
Modernization Theory: According to modernization theory, the loss of status of older people occurs as a result of the transformation from traditional, agrarian societies to modern, industrialized societies. In this context, the theory emphasizes four substantial shifts: enhanced health care, technological developments, urbanization, and expansion of public education (see Cuddy & Fiske, 2002 ).
Stereotype Embodiment Theory: Stereotype embodiment theory proposes that when older people internalize negative age stereotypes that they have been exposed since childhood, health is negatively affected ( Levy, 2009 ).
Social Identity Theory: It emphasizes the individual's effort to achieve a positive social identity and the need to feel positive about the group to which he or she belongs ( North & Fiske, 2012 ; Tajfel & Turner, 1986 ).