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Top1. Introduction
Mobility of skilled labor—highly talented and productive individuals with the potential to earn high wages—is a well-documented phenomenon (Gibson & McKenzie, 2012). The globalization of knowledge has contributed to skilled mobility at an international level (Saint-Blancat, 1990) by facilitating highly educated people with innovative mindsets and knowledge-based skillsets to become primary drivers of economic and social development (Boc, 2020; Saint-Blancat, 2019). It’s therefore not at all surprising that global competition for highly qualified researchers, such as PhDs, is increasing rapidly as their role in economic development is being recognized, and as countries look to address skill gaps. Attracting researchers from wherever they are located only makes sense (Gibson & McKenzie, 2012; Gonzalez et al., 2008; POST, 2008). Several factors, including quality of life, monetary benefits, and perception of benefits in the destination country, are important in driving scientific mobility (Khan, 2021; Li et al., 2021; Torrisi & Pernagallo, 2020; Vega-Muñoz et al., 2021). One sees that, across the world, the scenario varies widely, with Eastern and Southern European countries losing scientists and engineers (S&Es) to Western Europe and the US (Gaule, 2014; Geuna, 2015; Mahroum, 2000a).
Available data indicate a net flow of S&Es from developing to developed countries. The familiar term ‘brain drain’ aptly describes the damaging impact of this migration (POST, 2008; Mahroum, 2000b). And yet, there is evidence that migration may be beneficial to both the ‘sending’ and ‘receiving’ countries by fostering positive knowledge transfer. Therefore, it may very well be more appropriate to use the term ‘brain circulation’ in place of brain drain (Balaz & Williams, 2004; Balaz et al., 2004; Beine et al., 2008, 2010; Benassy & Brezis, 2013; Bhagwati & Hamada, 1974; Czaika & Orazbayev, 2018a, 2018b; Dohlman et al., 2019; Gomez et al., 2020; Saxenian, 2005). Additionally, scientists tend to be attracted by countries with strong research systems.
Simultaneously, in the United States, the number of international students—most of them undergraduates—has been trending upward, increasing by 32% since 2000 to 2010. While 2018 to 2019 set a new all-time high for overseas students in the United States, the Institute of International Education data shows small dips in intake over the years spanning 2016 to 2019, coinciding with the election and presidency of Donald Trump (Open Doors, 2020). The situation is similar in the United Kingdom, which has the largest population of foreign-born PhD students in all of Europe (Edler et al., 2013; Franzoni et al., 2012; Gagliardi, 2011; Galgoczi et al., 2016). In 2012, 47% of U.S. doctoral students came from abroad (European Commission, 2014; Lanka, 2022; Lawson et al., 2015).